'Prudence, Foresight, Courage, Oeconomy': glass beehives and English society, 1650-1680.

During the English Civil War and subsequent Restoration, beekeeping provided a ready set of moral examples for those seeking answers about the 'natural' structure of society. The practice itself also underwent a number of substantial changes, moving from a traditional craft practice to a more knowledge-focused, technologically complex one. The advent of glass-windowed hives in the latter half of the sixteenth century allowed intellectuals from across the political spectrum to directly observe bees as a way of gathering knowledge about how to understand the divine plan and, with that understanding, improve human society.

Challenges in sourcing bodies for anatomy education and research in Ethiopia: Pre and post COVID-19 scenarios.

BACKGROUND: The relevance of anatomical dissection in instructing anatomy to medical, dental, and other health science students is indisputable. Ethiopian anatomists encountered challenges in obtaining human bodies for anatomy education and research, both prior to and following the COVID-19 outbreak. The challenges intensified during the pandemic, significantly affecting anatomy education in Ethiopia. This study seeks to investigate the sources of bodies for anatomy, spanning the periods before and after COVID-19, with a particular focus on identifying the primary challenges associated with sourcing of bodies in Ethiopia. METHODS: Fifty (50) anatomists completed a survey distributed to ten (10) randomly chosen medical institutions in Ethiopia. The survey gathered information on the body profile (number of bodies, age, sex, sources, and methods of body disposal), and the challenges faced during the sourcing of bodies in the years 2018 and 2023. RESULTS: A total of sixty-three (63) bodies were used by the sampled medical institutions between 2018 and 2023 academic years. All (100%) of the bodies used were unclaimed human bodies. Most (66.7%) of these bodies were males. The majority (65.5%) of these bodies were sourced from Tikur Anbessa hospital in Addis Ababa. None (0%) of the sampled medical institutions had body donation programs. Disposal of human tissues encompassed various methods, including the retention of skeletons, prosection of vital organs, and burial of remaining tissues. Economic constraints and the absence of a legal framework document were the main challenges in acquiring bodies in the pre-pandemic period. The COVID-19 pandemic prevention policies and the civil war further exacerbated the challenges in sourcing of bodies for anatomy dissections during the post-pandemic period. CONCLUSION: The reliance on unclaimed human bodies for anatomy education and research in Ethiopian medical institutions mirrors a common practice across many African countries. The authors suggest the development of a legislative framework or operational guidelines, coupled with empowering the medical institutions to outsource their own funding that will ultimately lead to an increased number of bodies available for anatomical dissection. Over time, implementation and promotion of body donation programs may also resolve body shortages for anatomy education in Ethiopia.

History, politics, and variolation vaccination hesitancy in the American South during the American Civil War.

Examining the history of vaccination in the Civil War reveals lessons about why citizens resisted vaccination and how physicians tried to respond to the problems associated with combating epidemic diseases like smallpox. The Confederate government and physicians failed to effectively advocate to the public and collect information in an organized manner, and they suffered failures in getting enough citizens and soldiers vaccinated. Some Confederate physicians like Joseph Jones studied vaccination, but this came after the war, and the Confederate government failed to embrace and combat vaccine hesitancy. In some cases, more radical political elements tried to control the conversation through newspaper articles. Criticisms of vaccination likely continued to haunt the perceptions of vaccination in the Southern United States.

Typology of reasons why a person kills in a war context: The case of rebel/nationalist army combatants in the Spanish Civil War.

European historiography on wars has embarked on a study of a matter of crucial significance: the involvement of ordinary individuals as perpetrators of mass casualties. This article aims to provide insights and hypotheses concerning the underlying motives behind such actions, focusing on the unique context of the Spanish Civil War. The data utilized for this study are drawn from a sample of 112 oral interviews conducted with former combatants of the Spanish Civil War, all born between 1905 and 1920. During these interviews, 112 men participated a semi structured discussion. Individual perceptions and variables of interest relevant to acts of violence were subjected to qualitative analysis. Our analysis suggests that instances of aggression often arise because of emotional triggers, alignment with fascist ideological convictions, societal pressures and a sense of duty-driven obedience. Our results refute the notion that ideological factors alone suffice as explanations.

The hidden toll of war: a comprehensive study of orthopedic injuries in Yemen.

BACKGROUND: Yemen has been experiencing a protracted civil war and humanitarian crisis since 2015, which has resulted in many war-related injuries. However, there is a lack of data on the epidemiology, characteristics, and outcomes of these injuries, especially the orthopedic ones. This study aimed to describe the war-related orthopedic injuries in Yemen and their impact on the patients' health and function. METHODS: This was a retrospective study based on medical records and trauma registries of 3930 patients who were admitted to three major trauma centers in Sana'a city with war-related orthopedic injuries from January 2015 to December 2020. We collected data on demographics, injury mechanisms, injury types and locations, surgical procedures, complications, mortality, and functional outcomes using the Musculoskeletal Function Assessment questionnaire. We used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data and performed a logistic regression analysis to identify the factors associated with mortality. RESULTS: Most of the patients were young males and civilians who suffered from complex and severe injuries involving multiple body regions, especially the lower extremities. The main mechanisms of injury were gunshot wounds, blast injuries, and landmine explosions. The patients required multiple surgical procedures and implants, and had high rates of complications and mortality. The most common complications were infection, nonunion, malunion, and amputation. The most common cause of death was sepsis. The functional outcomes were poor, as indicated by the high mean MFA score. The logistic regression analysis showed that older age, blast injuries, spine injuries, vascular injuries, and infection were significant predictors of mortality. CONCLUSION: This study provides valuable information on the war-related orthopedic injuries in Yemen and their impact on the patients' health and function. It also identifies some areas for future research, such as exploring the risk factors for infection and nonunion/malunion, evaluating the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different surgical procedures and implants, assessing the long-term outcomes and quality of life of the patients, and developing novel strategies to enhance bone and soft-tissue healing.

Enduring association between irritable bowel syndrome and war trauma during the Nicaragua civil war period: A population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Psychosocial and physical trauma are known risk factors for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), including in war veterans, whereas war exposure in civilians is unclear. Nicaragua experienced two wars, 1970-1990: The Sandinistas Revolution (1970s) and The Contra War (1980s). Our aim was to investigate the role of exposure to war trauma in the subsequent development of IBS in the context of an established health surveillance system (11000 households). AIM: To investigate in a civilian population the relationship between exposure to war trauma and events and the subsequent development of IBS in the context of an established public health and demographic surveillance system in western Nicaragua. METHODS: We conducted a nested population-based, cross-sectional study focused on functional gastrointestinal disorders based on Rome II criteria. 1617 adults were randomly selected. The Spanish Rome II Modular Questionnaire and Harvard Trauma Questionnaire were validated in Nicaragua. War exposure was assessed with 10 measures of direct and indirect war trauma and post-war effects. Multiple exposures were defined by ≥ 3 measures. RESULTS: The prevalence of IBS was 15.2% [Female (F) 17.1%, Male (M) 12.0%], war exposure 19.3% (F 9.3%, M 36.7%), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 5.6% (F 6.4%, M 4.3%). Significant associations with IBS in the civilian population were observed (adjusted by gender, age, socioeconomic status, education): physical and psychological abuse [adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.25; 95% confidence interval: 1.1-4.5], witnessed execution (aOR: 2.4; 1.1-5.2), family member death (aOR: 2.2; 1.2-4.2), and multiple exposures (aOR: 2.7; 1.4-5.1). PTSD was independently associated with IBS (aOR: 2.6; 1.2-5.7). CONCLUSION: An enduring association was observed in the Nicaragua civilian population between specific civil war-related events and subsequent IBS. Civilian populations in regions with extended armed conflict may warrant provider education and targeted interventions for patients.

The Wrong Place at the Wrong Time? Territorial Autonomy and Conflict During Regime Transitions.

This article evaluates how territorial autonomy affects ethnic mobilization and conflict during regime transitions. Previous research has highlighted its conflict-inducing role during prominent transition contexts. Alternatively, it has shown its pacifying role in the "average" case, without distinguishing transition periods from stable contexts. Addressing these gaps, we argue that the de-escalatory consequences of autonomy depend on critical stabilizing factors which are themselves "muted" during transitions. We test our expectations in a cross-national analysis, covering all regime transitions between 1946 and 2017. We also revisit the 1989 transition from Communism, focusing on the role of "inherited" autonomy in the post-communist successor states. This enables us to address concerns whereby autonomy is offered to ward off transitions or whereby transitions are themselves induced by mobilization. Our findings indicate that during transitions, territorial autonomy increases the likelihood of ethnic mobilization, government concessions in response, and violent escalation where these are not forthcoming.

Humanitarian Outpatient Pediatric Endeavor (HOPE): A Novel Specialist Ambulatory Health-Care Concept in Conflict Areas.

With the collapse of the medical system in Syria, Israel began providing Syrians with humanitarian aid, first to the war-injured and then general medical treatment. We developed a novel specialist ambulatory care concept to provide medical care for Syrian children. Children with their caregivers were transported by bus across the border from Syria to our medical center in Israel for day-stay outpatient-clinic advanced evaluation and treatment due to coordination between Syrian, Red Cross, and Israeli authorities, including Israeli Defense Forces. This retrospective field report includes 371 Syrian children treated as outpatients at Galilee Medical Center between January 2016 and September 2018. In our experience, this novel pediatric ambulatory care concept has been feasible, efficient, and successful in providing specialist care for children in a crisis region devoid of access to health care. We believe it can also serve adult patients and be implemented in other crises and disasters scenarios.

Views of democracy and society and support for political violence in the USA: findings from a nationally representative survey.

BACKGROUND: Current conditions in the USA suggest an increasing risk for political violence. Little is known about the prevalence of beliefs that might lead to political violence, about support for and personal willingness to engage in political violence, and about how those measures vary with individual characteristics, lethality of violence, political objectives that violence might advance, or specific populations as targets. METHODS: This cross-sectional US nationally representative survey was conducted on May 13 to June 2, 2022, of adult members of the Ipsos KnowledgePanel. Outcomes are weighted, population-representative proportions of respondents endorsing selected beliefs about American democracy and society and violence to advance political objectives. RESULTS: The analytic sample included 8620 respondents; 50.5% (95% confidence interval (CI) 49.3%, 51.7%) were female; and weighted mean (± standard deviation) age was 48.4 (± 18.0) years. Nearly 1 in 5 (18.9%, 95% CI 18.0%, 19.9%) agreed strongly or very strongly that "having a strong leader for America is more important than having a democracy"; 16.2% (95% CI 15.3%, 17.1%) agreed strongly or very strongly that "in America, native-born white people are being replaced by immigrants," and 13.7% (95% CI 12.9%, 14.6%) agreed strongly or very strongly that "in the next few years, there will be civil war in the United States." One-third of respondents (32.8%, 95% CI 31.7%, 33.9%) considered violence to be usually or always justified to advance at least 1 of 17 specific political objectives. Among all respondents, 7.7% (95% CI 7.0%, 8.4%) thought it very or extremely likely that within the next few years, in a situation where they believe political violence is justified, "I will be armed with a gun"; 1.1% (95% CI 0.9%, 1.4%) thought it very or extremely likely that "I will shoot someone with a gun." Support for political violence and for the use of firearms in such violence frequently declined with increasing age, education, and income. CONCLUSIONS: Small but concerning proportions of the population consider violence, including lethal violence, to be usually or always justified to advance political objectives. Prevention efforts should proceed urgently based on the best evidence available.

The generation that lived during/participated in the war and the generation that inherited it: association between veterans PTSD and adult offspring's emotional regulation strategies and alexithymia levels.

BACKGROUND: The long-term repercussions that war can have on both war generations and post-war generations lack in the literature. It is imperative to understand the psychological consequences of the Lebanese Civil War that took place from 1975 to 1990, on the offspring of those who took part in it. Accordingly, the objective of this study was to assess the association between paternal/veterans PTSD and adult offspring's emotional regulation strategies and alexithymia levels, 30 years after the end of war. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was carried out between September 2020 and September 2021 on a sample of 75 fathers of Lebanese former veterans and paramilitary veterans and their adult offspring. For the veterans and paramilitary veterans' population, the PTSD Checklist was used to assess post-traumatic stress disorder, and the Combat Exposure Scale (CES) was used to measure the level of combat exposure. For the offspring population, the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) was used to assess emotional regulation strategies and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) was used to measure the levels of alexithymia. RESULTS: Paternal PTSD (Beta = 10.19) was associated with higher levels of alexithymia in the offspring population. Regarding emotional regulation strategies, results showed that paternal PTSD (Beta = -3.24) was significantly associated with a decrease in the cognitive reappraisal score in the offspring. Also, paternal PTSD (Beta = 4.57) was significantly associated with an increase in expressive suppression score. Additionally, an older father's age (Beta = 1.11) was significantly associated with an increased alexithymia score in the offspring. Moreover, results showed that paternal combat injuries (Beta = -4.24) were significantly associated with a decrease in the alexithymia score in the offspring population and an increase in the expressive suppression score (Beta = 3.28). CONCLUSION: This study shows that fathers' traumatic experience of war influences emotion regulation and alexithymia levels in their offspring. Longitudinal studies taking into account the age of the offspring at the time of onset of fathers' symptoms may provide us with additional information to understand the influence of paternal PTSD on the emotional functioning of offspring during different phases of emotional development.

Obstetric practice differences between Syrian refugees and non-Syrian nonrefugee gravidae: A retrospective cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess differences in obstetric practices between Syrian war refugees (SRs) and non-Syrian nonrefugees (NSRs) in a tertiary care provider in Germany. METHODS: This was a retrospective study of SRs (n = 356) and NSRs (n = 5836) giving birth between January 2015 and December 2018. Data on medical history, birth mode, complications, and neonatal parameters was extracted. Group differences were evaluated using Mann-Whitney and χ2 test. Logistic regression models were fitted to investigate the association of refugee status with mode of birth in conditions associated with increased risk of cesarean section (CS). RESULTS: SRs had higher rates of adolescent pregnancies (1.7% versus 0.6%, P = 0.020) but fewer maternal diseases compared with NSRs (1.7% versus 3.9%, P = 0.035). The rate of CS was higher in the NSR group (43.9% versus 36%, P = 0.003), as well as the rates of premature rupture of membranes (P = 0.006) and steroid administration for lung maturation (P = 0.012). Cases of umbilical artery pH ≤7.0 were more common in SRs (0.4% versus 1.1%, P = 0.027). Women with previous CS had similar odds of CS in the current pregnancy irrespective of study group (odds ratio, 0.94 [95% confidence interval, 0.50-1.75]). CONCLUSION: SR women had lower rates of CS but higher rates of adolescent pregnancies and neonatal pH ≤7.0 at birth compared with NSR women.

The Republic of Fear: Mental Illness in the Finnish Civil War of 1918.

This article examines the links between mental illness and the Finnish Civil War of 1918. Based on the study of patient records from a large state mental hospital, the article discusses the mental wounds of both servicemen and civilians and focuses on fear as an essential component in the onset of mental disorder. An examination of patient records reveals how civil war affected the mental health of ordinary people and created a collective psychological atmosphere of fear and anxiety. What this article also demonstrates is that, during and after the war, patients who were mentally scarred by the atrocities were neither categorised nor diagnosed any differently from other mental patients. By focussing on patient experiences in the 'mini-society' of a mental hospital, this article aims to give a nuanced account of the ways in which civil war can affect mental health on both the individual and collective levels.

Lathyrism in Spain: Lessons from 68 publications following the 1936-39 Civil War.

After the end of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), an estimated 1,000 patients presented with lathyrism due to their excessive and prolonged consumption of grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.) against the backdrop of poverty, drought, and famine. Based on 68 scientific communications between 1941 and 1962 by qualified medical professionals, the disease emerged in different geographical locations involving selective populations: (1) farmers from extensive areas of central Spain, traditionally producers and consumers of grasspea; (2) immigrants in the industrial belt of Catalonia and in the Basque Country, areas with little or no production of grasspea, which was imported from producing areas; (3) workers in Galicia, an area where the legume is neither produced nor consumed, who were seasonally displaced to high-production areas of grasspea in Castille; and (4) inmates of overcrowded postwar Spanish prisons. Original reports included failed attempts by Carlos Jiménez Díaz (1898-1967) to induce experimental lathyrism, the neuropathology of lathyrism in early stages of the disease in two patients, as reported by Carlos Oliveras de la Riva (1914-2007), and the special susceptibility of children to develop a severe form of lathyrism after relatively brief periods of consumption of the neurotoxic seed of L. sativus. In the Spanish Basque Country, L. cicera L. (aizkol) was cultivated exclusively as animal fodder. Patients who were forced to feed on this plant developed unusual manifestations of lathyrism, such as axial myoclonus and severe neuropsychiatric disorders, unknown in other regions of the country and previously unreported. The postwar epidemic of lathyrism in Spain represents the most extensively studied outbreak of this self-limiting but crippling upper motor neuron disease.

Redescubriendo al paciente M: Justo Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal y su teoría de la dinámica cerebral / Rediscovering patient M: Justo Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal and his theory of the brain dynamics

Introducción: En el transcurso de la Guerra Civil española, Justo Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal visita al paciente M en el Hospital de Sanidad Militar de Godella (Valencia). Este encuentro marca el inicio de una larga relación entre ambos, que brinda a Justo Gonzalo la oportunidad de estudiar la organización funcional cerebral y articular una original concepción de la neurofisiología basada en las leyes de la excitabilidad nerviosa. El objetivo de este trabajo es redescubrir al paciente M y la interpretación fisiológica de la dinámica cerebral de Gonzalo.Desarrollo: Tomando como piedra angular al paciente M, Gonzalo postula que el efecto de una lesión cortical depende de su magnitud y posición: la magnitud condiciona la intensidad del trastorno; la posición, el tipo de trastorno. Entre 1945 y 1950 desarrolla en profundidad estas y otras hipótesis, basadas en observaciones clínicas, en la obra Dinámica cerebral, La actividad cerebral en función de las condiciones dinámicas de la excitabilidad nerviosa (Vol. 1, 1945; Vol. 2, 1950). A partir de 1952 proporciona una versión ampliada de su teoría sobre dinámica cerebral, fundamentándola no sólo en conceptos fisiológicos, sino también en la idea de gradientes cerebrales, e introduciendo los conceptos de similitud y alometría de los sistemas dinámicos.Conclusiones: Durante siglos, el conocimiento sobre la organización funcional del cerebro se ha asentado en el estudio de casos únicos. El paciente M constituye un ejemplo más de esta tradición, ayudando a establecer las bases de la teoría de dinámica cerebral desarrollada por Justo Gonzalo.(AU)

Introduction: During the Spanish Civil War, Justo Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal visited patient M at the Military Healthcare Hospital in Godella (Valencia). This meeting marked the beginning of a long relationship between the two, which gave Justo Gonzalo the opportunity to study the functional organisation of the brain and to develop an original conception of neurophysiology based on the laws of nervous excitability. The aim of this work is to rediscover patient M and the physiological interpretation of Gonzalo’s brain dynamics.Development: Taking patient M as the cornerstone, Gonzalo postulated that the effect of a cortical lesion depends on its magnitude and position: the magnitude conditions the intensity of the disorder, whereas the position determines the type of disorder. Between 1945 and 1950 he developed these and other hypotheses in depth, based on clinical observations, in his work Dinámica cerebral. La actividad cerebral en función de las condiciones dinámicas de la excitabilidad nerviosa (Vol. 1, 1945; Vol. 2, 1950). From 1952 onwards he provided an expanded version of his theory of brain dynamics, basing it not only on physiological concepts, but also on the idea of brain gradients, and introducing the concepts of similarity and allometry of dynamic systems.Conclusions: For centuries, knowledge about the functional organisation of the brain has been based on single case studies. Patient M is a further example of this tradition that helps to establish the basis of the theory of brain dynamics developed by Justo Gonzalo.(AU)

Prevalence, aetiology, vaccination coverage and spatio-temporal pattern among patients admitted with acute bacterial meningitis to the sentinel hospital surveillance network in Yemen, 2014-20, before and during the civil war.

BACKGROUND: Acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) is a serious health issue in Yemen where civil war, which continues unabated, has crippled the healthcare system. We conducted a nationwide retrospective observational study in Yemeni sentinel hospitals to identify the prevalence, aetiology, vaccination coverage and spatio-temporal pattern of ABM in children aged <5 years before and during the civil war, 2014-20. METHODS: Cerebrospinal fluid samples were collected from hospitalized children and were analysed macroscopically for appearance and microscopically by Gram stain and white blood cell count. Culture and latex agglutination tests were performed. Data on the prevalence of and vaccination coverage for ABM were obtained from the Ministry of Health. Joinpoint regression was used to assess the annual percent change (APC) of ABM prevalence and vaccination coverage. Pearson's correlation was used to evaluate the association between ABM prevalence and vaccination coverage. RESULTS: In total, 11 339 hospitalized children had suspected cases of ABM (prevalence, 40.07/100 000 of the whole Yemeni population) and 2.6% (293/11 339) of suspected ABM cases were confirmed (prevalence, 1.04/100 000 of the whole Yemeni population). The dominant pathogens were Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). The civil war reduced the Hib and pneumococcal vaccination coverage (APC = -1.92), reaching its lowest (79.5%) in 2018. The prevalence of suspected ABM increased (APC = 3.46), reaching its maximum (6.08/100 000 of the whole Yemeni population) in 2019. The conflict inversely correlated with the ABM prevalence and vaccination coverage (Pearson correlation coefficient (r), -0.69 to -0.53). Ta'izz region, which was severely affected by the civil war, had the highest prevalence of suspected ABM (120.90/100 000 of the whole Yemeni population) and lowest vaccination coverage (60%). CONCLUSIONS: The civil war had a negative impact on vaccination coverage and coincided with increasing prevalence of ABM in Yemen. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the dominant causative pathogen.

Implications for future humanitarian aid missions: Lessons from point-of injury and hospital care for Syrian refugees.

BACKGROUND: Warzone humanitarian medical aid missions are infrequent and applying lessons from these missions is vital to ensuring preparedness for future crises. Between 2013-2018, the Israel Defense Forces Medical Corps (IDF-MC) provided humanitarian medical aid to individuals injured in the Syrian Civil War who chose to seek medical assistance at the Israeli-Syrian border. Patients requiring care surgical or advanced care were transferred to civilian medical centers within Israel. This study aims to describe the injury characteristics and management of hospitalized Syrian Civil War trauma patients over a five-year period. METHODS: Retrospective cohort analysis cross-referencing data from the IDF trauma registry, documenting prehospital care, and the Israel National Trauma Registry, documenting in-hospital care, between 2013 and 2018. Syrian trauma patients hospitalized in Israeli hospitals were cross-referenced between the two registries. Multivariable logistic regression was applied to identify independent factors associated with in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: Overall, 856 hospitalized trauma patients were included following definitive cross-matching. The median age was 23 years, and 93.3% were males. Blast (n = 532; 62.1%) and gunshot (n = 241; 28.2%) were the most common injury mechanisms. Injury Severity Score was ≥25 for 28.8% of patients and most common body regions with severe injury (Abbreviated Injury Scale≥3) were the head (30.7%) and thorax (25.0%). Intensive care unit admission was required for 40.1% of patients, and the median hospital stay was 13 days. In-hospital mortality was recorded for 73 (8.5%). Signs of shock upon emergency department admission and severe head injury were significantly associated with mortality in the adjusted model whereas age of <18 years was associated with decreased odds for in-hospital mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Trauma patients hospitalized in Israel following injuries sustained in the Syrian Civil War were characterized by a high prevalence of blast injuries with concomitant involvement of several body regions. Future missions should ensure preparedness for complex multi-trauma, often involving the head, and ensure high intensive care and surgical capacities.

An analytical framework for household entitlement assessment in civil war.

Amartya Sen, the economist and philosopher, defines entitlement as command over resources that permits a household to have access to essential goods and services to sustain life within legal and established social norms and practices. Entitlement failure occurs when a household's command over all available combinations of resources does not ensure sufficient provisions of food to avoid starvation. This paper provides an overview of the literature on causal relations between civil war and household entitlements. It suggests a conceptual framework for empirically analysing the ramifications of armed political conflict on household entitlements. In addition, it develops a composite index as a tool to investigate the effect of civil war on household entitlements and to guide policy in the context of conflict-related international humanitarian interventions. The paper's key contribution is to suggest an empirical framework for quantitative measurement of the impact of civil war on household entitlements and to improve targeting criteria in post-conflict rehabilitation efforts.

Jane Stuart Woolsey and Hospital Days: The power of nursing training.

AIMS: To analyze the personal experiences of Jane Stuart Woolsey in Hospital Days (1868), an inspiring nurse who brought order, training and quality to nursing activities in the context of the American Civil War (1861-1865). BACKGROUND: In a restrictive context where the general access of women to public sphere activities was rather limited and where nursing was not a formally regulated professional activity, Jane Woolsey wrote Hospital Days to recount her wartime nursing experiences as the superintendent of Fairfax Seminary Hospital in Virginia. DESIGN: Historical research. METHODS: Historical research methods were used to analyze Hospital Days. Data gathered from primary and secondary sources were synthesized and discussed in terms of their historical context and significance. RESULTS: Unlike other triumphal narratives at the time, Woolsey develops a compelling account describing the work expected of a nurse and denouncing the lack of training among most nurses working in the war context. CONCLUSION: Jane Woolsey was a pioneering nurse who improved the quality of nursing care amidst the American Civil War. Her personal experiences collected in Hospital Days reflect her desire for the proper training of nurses and her contributions to emerging professional nursing activities built on the integration of previous domestic values, good training and good administration.

Using Facebook advertising data to describe the socio-economic situation of Syrian refugees in Lebanon.

While the fighting in the Syrian civil war has mostly stopped, an estimated 5.6 million Syrians remain living in neighboring countries. Of these, an estimated 1.5 million are sheltering in Lebanon. Ongoing efforts by organizations such as UNHCR to support the refugee population are often ineffective in reaching those most in need. According to UNHCR's 2019 Vulnerability Assessment of Syrian Refugees Report (VASyR), only 44% of the Syrian refugee families eligible for multipurpose cash assistance were provided with help, as the others were not captured in the data. In this project, we are investigating the use of non-traditional data, derived from Facebook advertising data, for population level vulnerability assessment. In a nutshell, Facebook provides advertisers with an estimate of how many of its users match certain targeting criteria, e.g., how many Facebook users currently living in Beirut are "living abroad," aged 18-34, speak Arabic, and primarily use an iOS device. We evaluate the use of such audience estimates to describe the spatial variation in the socioeconomic situation of Syrian refugees across Lebanon. Using data from VASyR as ground truth, we find that iOS device usage explains 90% of the out-of-sample variance in poverty across the Lebanese governorates. However, evaluating predictions at a smaller spatial resolution also indicate limits related to sparsity, as Facebook, for privacy reasons, does not provide audience estimates for fewer than 1,000 users. Furthermore, comparing the population distribution by age and gender of Facebook users with that of the Syrian refugees from VASyR suggests an under-representation of Syrian women on the social media platform. This work adds to growing body of literature demonstrating the value of anonymous and aggregate Facebook advertising data for analysing large-scale humanitarian crises and migration events.